• Bug fix for DV 720×576 sequence settings
• Bug fix for 44.1 kHz audio settings
• Bug fix for 0% Speed Rate
• Bug fix for markers on Generators
• Bug fix for non-standard frame rates.

I feel particularly chagrined about the PAL related bug. Having lived in a PAL country (Australia) for most of my career, I was often on the receiving end of less-than-complete PAL support compared with the NTSC. Some may recall that FCP 1 did not officially support PAL at all. It didn’t stop me but it wasn’t officially supported.

These bugs were a surprise – particularly the 44.1 KHz one – as 7toX for Final Cut Pro has been the most-tested of any of our apps. It is, as I said, also the most complex by several orders of magnitude.

It takes a couple of days to get through the App Store update process, so I’d estimate the update being available by Feb 6 or 7.

We apologize to everyone who’s been bitten by these bugs.

Note: If ever you run into a problem translation, please send the XML file to info @ IntelligentAssistance.com (without the spaces). This helps us track down the problem and fix it.

The subscript 2 was just too much for the app store – no provision to include it in the name, so we did a rethink. Smooth sailing into the store – approved in less than a week.

And there it is. Doesn’t show by search yet, but here’s the direct link:

Mac App Store – Xto7 for Final Cut Pro: http://itunes.apple.com/us/app/xto7-for-final-cut-pro/id487899517?ls=1&mt=12

My interest in this story is simply because I want to harness that power to speed the pre-post process or understanding what content we have, in order to better (and more quickly) use it. It also confirms my long-held belief that we are – at least for some kinds of work – be able to semi-automate first assemblies.

In this context:

My best guess is that this will be a growing part of the behind the scenes internet services industry. Google would be a natural contender, indexing as it does much of the data one would need to reach a reasonable judgment. But Google isn’t really in the judgment business. Sure, you’ve got their “best guess for Patrick Swayze age” if you search for it (59!), but evaluating natural-language claims, political or what have you, doesn’t seem like their business. They store and index data and surface what you’re looking for. I think it will be a startup, or someone in academia like Schultz, who provides the first germ of this and starts a movement, though his own contributions may in the end be minimal. The competition will, hopefully, be based on the accuracy of their evaluations, just as the search engines competed on speed and simplicity, or device makers on build and design.

Although let’s not forget what my friend Doug Luberts pointed to: Colossus: The Forbin Project

Forbin is the designer of an incredibly sophisticated computer that will run all of America’s nuclear defenses. Shortly after being turned on, it detects the existence of Guardian, the Soviet counterpart, previously unknown to US Planners. Both computers insist that they be linked, and after taking safeguards to preserve confidential material, each side agrees to allow it. As soon as the link is established the two become a new Super computer and threaten the world with the immediate launch of nuclear weapons if they are detached. Colossus begins to give it’s plans for the management of the world under it’s guidance. Forbin and the other scientists form a technological resistance to Colossus which must operate underground.

I’m mildly more positive.

Finally, some time has become available and we’ve been exploring what’s required and there’s a problem.

Right now Event Manager X will quit Final Cut Pro X; reorganize your Events and Projects as you’ve set in Event Manager X, then re-run Final Cut Pro X. We need to do this so Final Cut Pro X will recognize the changed folder status: it only checks when it starts up or when new drives are added. It certainly doesn’t like it when we move an Event out from under it while it’s running!! So we don’t do that.

The problem we’ve run into is that an App Store sandboxing policy – and apparently one that is rigidly adhered to – is that no application can quit another application.

So, that would mean that when you requested Event Manager X to make your desired changes, that we would put up a dialog asking you to quit Final Cut Pro X. We can detect when it’s not running and make the changes and then restart Final Cut Pro X on your behalf, but we would have to have you do that one step that we currently do for you.  We don’t like losing functionality, particularly anything that makes the app work more smoothly.

So, the dilemma is that the App store is absolutely the right place to sell Event Manager X (and Project Xto7 as well where there’s no issue) but we hate losing functionality.

So, what do you all think? App Store with a less smooth workflow/product, or keep the functionality and keep it out of the app store? We’d rather not do both – having one version on our website and another in the App Store – but it’s certainly a possibility, although how to make the differentiation clear is a problem. Our preference for our Final Cut Pro X related apps is to have them in the App Store only.

Let me know what you think in the comments.

Facial Recognition App Detects, Captures Smiles Technology intrudes more & more into “human” territory

Meet Swivl, The Motion Tracking iPhone Dock That Always Keeps You On Camera More and more automatics!

Now, it would be really cool if Swivl tracked you and kept you on camera using facial detection but it does not: instead it uses a hand held transmitter/controller to “know” where to point the camera.  Even with that it will make a great addition to a video blogger, web episode producer as the producer/talent can move and have the camera follow them as they do.

The SmileClick App is much more interesting:

SmileClick is a newly launched, unique application that uses proprietary facial recognition software to detect how big a photo subject is smiling. Once the app determines that the person to be photographed is sporting a large, genuine smile, it automatically snaps the picture at the right time, helping to create happy memories.

Waltham MA based  Affectiva takes it one step further:

…has facial recognition software that can accurately determine the difference between a happy smile, an embarrassed smile and a smirk!

As well as other emotions. Currently used only in focus groups and the like, wouldn’t it make a great source of metadata if, as well as the person’s face being (accurately) identified, there was another tag “smiling”, “embarrassed”, “annoyed”, et. al. I see it as inevitable but a few years off.

Naturally, any automation of “creative” processes interests me because I believe that some parts of the creative process of video postproduction can be automated. However, author Robbie Allen is right when he says:

Software isn’t a panacea, though. Not all content can be easily automated (yet). The type of content my company,Automated Insights, has automated is quantitatively oriented. That’s the trick. We’ve automated content by applying meaning to numbers, to data. Sports was the first category we tackled. Sports by their nature are very data heavy. By our internal estimates, 70% of all sports-related articles are analyzing numbers in one form or another.

Similarly there are many types of video that lend itself to automation. For example SundaySky create up to 1.4 million unique videos a month:

SundaySky, Tel Aviv/New York-based start-up with 50 employees, with no video camera or production staff, will produce 1.4 million video clips this month for a range of big retail and real estate corporate customers including Overstock.com and the History Channel. The company pulls customer data into a customized template which creates videos with movement, music, narration and graphics and video.

These are neither “cat videos” nor are they the sort of video that requires enormous human creativity. These are not for the big screen or for broadcast, but they are part of the online video trend (revolution?) to provide more video content at lower cost to produce, which seems to be everyone’s goals.

Our goals with Assisted Editing are to “take the boring out of post” as a tool for an editor or producer to filter through clips and find stories, or to simply automate dull parts of the process, and perhaps, build this type of simple video automatically.

At one level this is kind of scary – these were the folks who discovered a Social Security number way too often, from a casual photograph in the street – at the level of production automation it shows the direction we’re heading for automatically generating metadata for postproduction.

 In their most recent round of facial recognition studies, researchers at Carnegie Mellon were able to not only match unidentified profile photos from a dating website (where the vast majority of users operate pseudonymously) with positively identified Facebook photos, but also match pedestrians on a North American college campus with their online identities.

and

In our third experiment, as a proof-of-concept, we predicted the interests and Social Security numbers of some of the participants in the second experiment. We did so by combining face recognition with the algorithms we developed in 2009 to predict SSNs from public data. SSNs were nothing more than one example of what is possible to predict about a person: conceptually, the goal of Experiment 3 was to show that it is possible to start from an anonymous face in the street, and end up with very sensitive information about that person, in a process of data “accretion.” In the context of our experiment, it is this blending of online and offline data – made possible by the convergence of face recognition, social networks, data mining, and cloud computing – that we refer to as augmented reality.

The benefit for documentary/reality postproduction would be to have every person in a shot identified automatically and tagged with name (and perhaps other relevant details).

And then apply  Affectiva‘s emotion detecting algorithms…

This allows you to take your FCP X timeline (Project) to FCP 7 or directly to Color, Adobe Premiere (and via dynamic link to After Effects) or other FCP 7 XML workflow.

Via FCP 7 you can then link to Soundtrack Pro (sadly Soundtrack Pro’s project format has never been published), to Motion 4, or to OMF output for ProTools.

We still have a little work to do, but right now we support most features: connected clips, primary storyline, transitions (currently all are replaced by a cross dissolve but we’ll do better than that before release) but any time we can’t accurately reproduce something we’ll tell you in a report.

Tonight I demo’d a Project with:

• Titles at the start and end
• a mixture of primary storyline and connected clips
• a mix of active and inactive clips
• large numbers of J and L cuts
• To do markers and regular markers
• Spot audio effects
• And limited transition support.

All transfer without problem.  Unfinished To Do markers appear as red markers in FCP 7, done to Green and the blue FCP X markers to blue markers in FCP 7.

Before the comments go crazy asking why we didn’t do the opposite, since that’s what every really wants, let me explain.  Back in my initial briefing for FCP X I asked about the transfer and got the distinct impression that someone was already working on it (perhaps even Apple, it was vague). We’re a small software developer and can’t run the risk of spending considerable development effort to discover that a better funded competitor will come out with a similar product and kill our sales. Imagine if we announced this today, and three weeks from now Apple releases a tool. Obviously we’d get no sales.

Doing this type of conversion too is incredibly difficult and from our experience going 7 to X would be even more of a challenge. I wish whoever takes it on the best of luck.  In the meantime, if you need to integrate Final Cut Pro X into some existing workflows, Project X₂7 will get you there sooner.

Apologies if you got the unfinished version of this post.  Early starts and long days teaching at DV Expo takes its toll.

prEdit 1.0.x required the transcript to be generated in Adobe Premiere Pro or Soundbooth; or be processed through either of those applications to lock text to video. While prEdit 1.5 still supports that workflow, it now also works with:

Text, DOC and RTF formats that have timecode at (least) the start of each speaker. More frequent Timecode entries will make the text/video match more accurate.

3Play Media’s JSON format, also available from Media Silo, is supported and has absolute word accuracy. We recommend the JSON format for new transcripts in the future, for now prEdit works with what you’ve already got. (3Play Media also offer more conventional formats with the JSON format, so you can have multiple options for the same transcription fee.)

We tested with every type of text, rtf and Microsoft Word Doc format that we could find and made sure that prEdit accurately read in the transcript accurately identifying the timecodes regardless of how that timecode is formatted.

If you’re working with transcripts you can swap over to prEdit at any time because any log notes entered in Final Cut Pro or Premiere Pro will be editable in prEdit. New log notes can be added in prEdit’s more efficient interface – with autocomplete – and merged with work done in the NLE.

Since I last wrote about  prEdit we added the ability to write in narration to link the interview segments. Narration is immediately turned into an audio file using the current (at the time) system voice for a temp audio file used during previews and for when the project is sent to Final Cut Pro or Premiere Pro CS5 or later.

As well as working with any transcript prEdit 1.5:

• Let’s producers or editors cut transcripts into selects in seconds
• Add and update log notes with auto-complete logging fields
• Uses notes already added in Final Cut Pro or Premiere Pro
• Previews the video for any clip, subclip, paper cut or section of paper cut
• Exports to Excel spreadsheets and Final Cut Pro, or Premiere Pro Sequences.

There’s a free demo and prEdit is only $395 for a massive boost in productivity. As Lee Schneider said:

Thanks for prEDIT!  It’s a wonderful application that “thinks” exactly like an editor does.  The workflow is smooth and intuitive and it speeds the process of logging by theme and topic that makes it much easier to assemble sequences.

One of the technologies I’ve been following, because I think it’s relevant to my goals with Assisted Editing (to take the boring out of postproduction). One piece of the “boring” is deriving keywords and concepts from spoken word (transcribed, of course).

Technologies like this, and others developed for the Library and Archivist industries, are becoming very sophisticated.

In an Assisted Editing context, the extraction of keywords (particularly) from a “chunk” of transcribed spoken word (let’s say an interview for a documentary), removes the need for a human to enter the keywords.

Having keywords is valuable because you can search for all instances of the keyword (to find common themes), which is something prEdit really does well, whether you’re going to build the initial outline manually in a tool like prEdit or Final Cut Pro, or use an Assisted Editing tool to get to a rough first assemble.

The examples in the article are surprisingly “high end”, pitting humans choosing potential University entrants against a simple algorith, and the algorithm wins.

Could a computer do your job as a ‘creative’ individual? An editor, writer or producer?

If your role is truly creative probably not. But as we try and take the boring out of post, we’ve realized a lot of so-called ‘creative work’ isn’t. It’s not creative synchronizing separate system audio and video. It’s not creative stringing out a first assemble of scripted content. That’s grunt work, to get to a point where the final story can be crafted out of the script and shoot. (The first assemble bears little relationship to the final edit.)

We’ve even established that, with the right metadata a basic first cut can be pulled out of log notes – that’s First Cuts, which we released more than two years ago.

So, can a computer do your job? If someone can analyze what you do, it can be replicated in software. Fortunately most “creative’ tasks are hard to analyze as to why something “works” – intuition is hard to replicate (at least until we understand what mechanisms happen beneath the intuition).

Anyway, with hindsight, I found most of the facade put forth by various departments (eg, auto lending, health care lending), was very misleading. Everyone made the simple complicated. I think deep down, no one likes to think a computer can do their job, and there are many instances where exceptions matter, so a great deal is made out of these special cases. Yet the false positives made them great anecdotes, but horrible for generalizations. Thus, simple rules dominate their much more costly, confusing, and non-quantitative product created by teams of analysts.

Our longest show ever!

In this episode Terence and Philip, with Greg Huson from Secret HQ, look forward to what we can expect in 2011.  You might want to pace yourself on this one as we’ve set a new record for show length.

What will the Microsoft Kinect be used for? Who’ll be releasing new software this year – will we see new versions of Media Composer, Final Cut Pro or Adobe Creative Suite? Will Avid open up to 3rd party hardware? What will be in those releases? Is this the year Metadata (finally) takes off?

How many movies have to not make money from 3D before the fad is over? Or will 3D TV spark 3D production? Will we see RED Epic this year and will it be a success? What will develop with large sensor cameras?

How will the collapse of State Governments affect production subsidies? Will runaway production come back to LA?

When will the tipping point come when distribution breaks out of broadcast and cable channel models? Is ivi going to be ruled legal? What’s the future of Netflix? Is a social network a replacement for channel guides?

What do we wish we could predit for this year? More use of metadata for production automation and where it comes from? What if we didn’t do a first string-out manually? This leads to a discussion of the philosophy of editing.

What will be this year’s surprise? Another DSLR? Another daVinci/Smoke on Mac?

What will happen in distribution? What’s the future of DVD Extras?

What isn’t going to happen that needs to happen?

Metadata is crucial in today’s ever-changing, competitive post production environment. New, exciting tools continue to emerge. Trying to sort through it all? Join us for a special event in LA onJanuary 27 @ 6:30.

Metadata is becoming increasingly powerful and vital in today’s ever-changing, fact-paced post production environment. Once an afterthought, producers, editors and digital content creators alike are now embracing metadata and implementing it into their workflows. New, exciting tools continue to emerge in the marketplace that make gathering and tracking metadata quicker and more efficient. Having the power to streamline your workflow, and maximize your search capability is an immeasurable asset, and will ultimately save you time, money and headache on your next project.

MediaSilo and Oasis Imagery are proud to present, ‘Metadata Workflow: How to Make Metadata Work for You.’ Join us along with guests from CET Universe, AV3 Software and Intelligent Assistance Inc., as we navigate our way through the importance of metadata and the tools that allow you to take the most advantage of it.

Philip Hodgetts of Intelligent Assistance is an expert and consultant in digital production and post-production workflows, encoding, web applications, digital delivery and technology innovation. He is the President of Intelligent Assistance and has also authored several books.

Doug Hynes of AV3 Software, is a creative media industry veteran, having worked for all of the major software manufacturers, including Avid, Apple and Autodesk. As Director of Products at AV3, Doug provides technical support, account and product management.

Tony Cahill is the chief engineer of CET Universe, a leading provider of services and systems for professional audio and video production. He manages a team of technology specialists that provide design, installation, and service support for integrated workflow solutions.

Erik Freid – Media Silo – has more than 15 years of experience in major markets, working with clients including independent and documentary filmmakers, episodic TV, and studio feature production.  As VP of Product Management at MediaSilo, Erik leads the development and feature set of the MediaSilo platform, as well as designs cost effective workflows for even the most challenging of production needs.

I’ve been researching technologies over the “Christmas break” and thinking about the future of Assisted Editing, and I have been totally amazed by what already exists in terms of image recognition. So having a more efficient technology for obtaining the raw data to feed to these intelligent image recognition algorithms, means it can all happen faster – i.e. happen for video and not just stills.

In other areas, computer software is fulfilling highly advanced tasks.

Financial modeling and automated trading, way beyond the capability of humans to track and manage. Wired Jan 2011 Algorithms take control of Wall Street.

“Algorithms have become so ingrained in our financial system that the markets could not operate without them.”

In the Smarter than you think – when computers keep watch article in the NYT, computers are expected to (from video content):

Warn of a potential “incident” between warring groups in a prison and alert prison guards;

Watch a hospital room and remind nurses or doctors who fail to wash their hands at an appropriate time (before and after handling a patient);

Warn of a restless patient who is in danger of falling out of bed;

Read a person’s face through a two way “mirror” to detect heart rate and other vital signs (including increasing heart-risk);

Analyze a person’s expressions to gauge emotional response, with very fine grain accuracy (something I’ve mentioned above in the context of generating metadata).

Yes, you read that last one right. Affectiva, a Wlatham, Mass company, has facial recognition softare that can accurately determine the difference between a happy smile, an embarrassed smile and a smirk! The research started as a way to give an autistic child a way of determining the emotions of those around them (a skill autistic children are particularly bad at). The company is now marketing its facial-expression analysis software for market analysis research – gauging customer reaction – to:

“manufacturers of consumer products, retailers, marketers and movie studios. Its mission is to mine consumers’ emotional responses to improve the designs and marketing campaigns of products.”

Going further:

The software “makes it possible to measure audience response with a scene-by-scene granularity that the current survey-and-questionnaire approach cannot,” Mr. Hamilton said. “A director,” he added, “could find out, for example, that although audience members liked a movie over all, they did not like two or three scenes. Or he could learn that a particular character did not inspire the intended emotional response.”

If software can detect emotional responses to movies, it can detect emotional performances and – for documentary/reality/news – detect the emotion in the face to help drive editing.

It will be really interesting to look back from the future and wonder when, exactly, the computers took over!

Sequence Clip Reporter is our tool for taking a Final Cut Pro sequence and generating a wide variety of Clip reports for music reporting, stock footage, etc with reel-by-reel, filter and marker reports all available.

We originally settles on “Smart Tools for Smart Editors and Producers” but in reality our goal is to take all the boring work out of post production, whether it’s syncing audio and video sources together, copying log notes from one bin to another or doing a series of first cuts to explore your content we want to take the boring, tedious, slow parts out so editors are free to focus on the truly creative work of making an edit emotionally compelling and visually stimulating.

Andy Mees in our comments, and Anthony Burokas in response to Scott Simmons post at Studio Daily both raised the question that “a free copy” of the application seemed to be unfair compensation for the idea for an application. They raise a fair question: after all we’re asking people to submit the idea and hand over rights for the developed application to Intelligent Assistance.

So, how valuable is an idea? In practice pretty much nothing. Consider:

Ideas vs Execution “To me, ideas are worth nothing unless executed. They are just a multiplier. Execution is worth millions.”

Ideas vs Execution (different site) “Startups – your idea isn’t nearly as important as you think it is.”

Is Execution More Important than Vision? “… the visionary is usually the one that gets the shaft in Silicon Valley.”

Or consider the Winkelvoss brothers who could be reasonably considered to have had the “idea” that ultimately became Facebook. They sued to prove it and did, indeed win a $65 million judgement (in Facebook shares, not cash). Given that Facebook was valued at $5 billion at the time, that’s just 1.3% for the idea and 98.7% for execution.

So let’s take a practical case: our Transcriptize application. Like almost all of our applications this one came as a suggestion from a friend, Larry Jordan. At his 2009 business Christmas gathering, Larry suggested the idea to be able to read and convert Soundbooth transcription XML to something more useful. Good idea Larry, so let’s make it.

Greg (my programming partner) had to learn how to read Soundbooth XML (which is a different format than FCP XML, of course) and then build an algorithm to convert it to text, spreadsheet and Final Cut Pro markers. The basic conversion was done the day after the Christmas gathering after about six hours work. (For reference, a programmer with his experience bills at $150 an hour or more.) But that wasn’t an application. It was still useless, but has incurred a “cost” of $900.

To turn that algorithm into a real, shipping product took another week’s work between us (that’s another 40 hours or $6K) to design and build an interface, to troubleshoot and test multiple outputs for Final Cut Pro, to add extra features as we thought of them, to add in updating frameworks, security framework, feedback framework, design an icon, write copy for and design a website page, set up serial numbers and the product into the Intelligent Assistance store, write and send out media releases and start marketing and promoting the application.

That’s with a full e-commerce site already developed that automatically talks with the payment processor so that, when payment is confirmed, issues serial number, and with a robust security system already developed and in place. Neither were developed specifically for Transcriptize bu together they represent another 60-80 hours of work that has to be amortized across all sales.

Opportunity cost for us to create Transcriptize (without allocating any from the store or security) was over $8000. We have yet to sell 10 copies at $149 each. The value of the app free is $149, the return to Larry at 5% to date would be $37.25 as we come to the anniversary of the apps release.

Pretty much every one of our utility applications to date have been suggested by friends and associates as you can see in the credits for any application:

Transcriptize was suggested by (as I said) Larry Jordan;

Sequence Clip Reporter suggested by Les Perkins who had to wait nearly a year to be able to run it on his system after he upgraded with a massive number of feature requests from early adopters;

Sync-N-Link was suggested by Ted Schilowitz of RED Digital Cinema;

Finsher was suggested, during the First Cuts beta, by Loren Miller

ExceLogger was suggested by a First Cuts Studio customer;

Log Note Replicator came from a suggestion of a LAFCPUG user who had been using ExceLogger in a convoluted way to do what Log Note Replicator became;

Clip Info Titler was requested in various ways by multiple people, including Shane Ross

Is Clip Used? was a multi-wished feature request over at the LAFCPUG forums.

The question of a royalty never came up: these people were just happy to see the application created so they could use it, so we thought the same would apply to the competition.

The other applications: First Cuts (originally The Assistant Editor); prEdit, Matchback Magic and miniME came from internal ideas, because – quite frankly – no-one much thinks that far out of the box.

The “idea” is important, but if you have to choose between the idea and execution, always bet on execution.

On the other hand, if you do have an idea you’re convinced will sell thousands of copies to Final Cut Pro users and you’re prepared to put in a whole lot more than just the idea, come talk with Intelligent Assistance. We do a lot of custom programming for workflow support and we could likely build the app for you. But the reality is that few products sell a thousand copies, even fewer thousands. Of the nearly 300,000 applications in the iOS store, there are 290,000 that are making their developer nothing.

But, so that no-one can feel that they are hard done by, the winner of our “There’s not an App for that… yet” competition will have the choice of either getting the application for free, or taking a perennial 5% of net sales (after credit card charges and fees are deducted from the income). In most cases you’ll be better off taking the free app, but to be fair, the details of expected return, compared to the returns we’ve made on apps, will be set out for the winner so their choice is well informed.

Well, here’s your chance. My company, Intelligent Assistance, is running a competition from now into February, to find the top app that absolutely needs to be made.

First off we’re seeking ideas, hence the questions above. Between now and the end of January suggest an idea for an app. Then in round 2 during February we’ll be putting all the ideas (the ones we can make) up for voting. The winning app – the one most voted on – will be made and the person who suggested it will get it FREE.

Even better, those who vote for that app will also be eligible to buy the app at half price!

All the details are at http://assistedediting.intelligentassistance.com/competition/

If you’ve got questions, ask them in the comments.

[Update] Because of the comments here and at Studio Daily we’ve modified the competition terms so that the winner will now be offered the choice of the app for free, or a 5% royalty on sales from the app.

Inspired by LAFCPUG forum feature requests, a new applet from Assisted Editing.

Do you want to know which clips have been used in which sequences in your project? Is Clip Used? updates your Browser clips using a simple menu command.

Is Clip Used? sets the clipsʼ Label 2, Comment A or Comment B column (your choice) to the sequence name or names where theyʼve been used.

Is Clip Used? is an applet that shows as a menu item in the right-hand side of the menu bar. Choose the Browser column to use for the sequence name or names from the menu. The name of the Sequence or Sequences where the clip is used will be updated in the chosen column of the project immediately. If a clip hasn’t been used in a sequence, the field will be set to blank; if a clip has been used in more than one sequence in your project, the field will be set to all the sequence names separated by commas. You can easily undo the Browser column change by choosing Undo.

Requirements:

• Final Cut Pro 6.0.2 or later (part of Final Cut Studio)
• Mac OS X 10.5 (Leopard) or 10.6 (Snow Leopard)